1. Introduction to Ostrich Eggs
The ostentatiously large size and unique morphology of ostrich eggs have always attracted naturalists and laymen alike. Gargantuan in size, pleasingly colored in a delicate matte with speckles, and shaped like upside-down teardrops – all of these are a far cry from the spheroidal shapes of the eggs of most birds. The strong ribbed structure of an empty ostrich egg adds to its appeal. Given their enormous size, an adult female of a giant bird like the ostrich is only able to lay an average of 30 eggs a year. Given that almost 1 in 49,000 bird species are ratites, that is, large flightless birds with a penchant for laying very large eggs, this makes ostriches the prime subject to study with respect to egg size and avian reproductive phenology.
These peculiarly large eggs are laid by the largest of all ratites – the common ostrich. Ostriches were domesticated about 100 years ago. Female birds produced eggs in their uteri, which were, before deposition, separate from the albumin and put in a different shell of a new egg. This happened until the whole laying process was over and the fluid-filled egg helped the shells to attain their normal shape. It is important to note how ostentatious these eggs are within the avian world. Several diet stones from inside single eggs remind us of the prominence of these eggs in archaeological expeditions. As a contribution to conservation efforts, several companies now obtain ostrich eggs from farmers who rear these birds for the lucrative trade. The eggs sold are often infertile or selected ones that provide sustenance, which ensures that viable eggs are left behind for hatching. Markets painted ostrich eggs as an alternate source of income. Of late, there has also been an increased demand for these eggs for culinary reasons as well – they are touted as equivalent to 24–28 normal chicken eggs.
2. Physical Characteristics of Ostrich Eggs
Ostrich eggs are unique. Measured by mass, they are the largest eggs laid by any bird alive today. The eggshells, while not made of calcium carbonate as in most birds, are calcified to give the eggs the necessary strength to support the weight of a full-grown ostrich standing on them. Eggshells are thick with a very rough texture, characteristic of most ratite eggs. The thick eggshell and rough texture are two of the best-known egg characteristics of ratites and are thought to be an adaptation to withstand the pressure of brooding adults or perhaps even the impacts of large clumsy feet. Ostrich eggshells are subellipsoidal, subconical in shape, and weigh about 1.3% of the female body mass. They come in a wide variety of colors and patterns, which make them attractive for collectors and artisans. The color and patterns can be changed by altering the incorrect or substituting the correct diet. Additionally, the single pair of sex chromosomes in the ostrich allows for about 15 different cross-sectional colors and patterns.
It is well known that ostrich eggs are structurally distinct from those of most other birds, being thick-shelled and hence with a low water vapor conductance. Technological advances have made it easier to determine both eggshell porosity and the interstitial eggshell membrane porosity where carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapor are exchanged. The speed of oxygen uptake from the shell is determined by its permeability. Depending on climatic conditions, an ostrich egg loses 25% of its mass during incubation. Incubation plays a unique role in the evolutionary biology of the ratites and the ostrich, ensuring a long, successful life providing eggs and chicks that increase the number of relatives. A buffered solution of amorphous calcium, carbonates, and proteins is responsible for causing a whiter hue in the eggshell. The embryonic development and physical characteristics of ratite eggs are generically distinct from representatives of other bird clades. This is reflected in the biosecurity standards internationally, with the ratites globally classified separately from other birds. The much smaller eggs of other ratites also have a rough texture but have a thicker cuticle layer. Ostrich eggs remain solidly the largest eggs laid by living birds.
3. Formation and Composition of Ostrich Eggs
Ostriches are seasonal breeders, with reproduction starting as a consequence of the longest day of the year. Before considering egg formation, five ovulation stages can be distinguished. The formation of the egg can be divided into different stages, namely preovulatory, ovulatory, pre-formation (first day), egg formation (up to 24 days), egg-laying, and post-oviposition. The ostrich egg consists of various layers, starting with the intact eggshell. The eggshell, with its large pore canals and extremely high porosity, is primarily made up of calcium carbonate, while a protein layer is situated between the crystalline structure of the eggshell and the outer shell membrane; it is in this area where we find the pore canals. The biological importance of calcium carbonate lies in the fact that it represents a readily available calcium source in embryonic development.
Once fertilization has occurred, the embryo starts a nutritious voyage within the egg white and/or yolk to hatch approximately 42 days later. The whole egg composition is adapted to this process. The actual concentration of macronutrients and complete energy value varies largely. Nonetheless, it is known that on average, yolk lipids correspond to approximately 48% of the whole egg fat, the other 52% being the egg white, whereas the concentration of lipids can range from approximately 0.1% up to 2.5% and 12.7% to 15.7% of the whole egg weight for egg white and egg yolk, respectively. The protein amount in the egg white is reported to be around 10.8% up to 13.6%, and is known to be rich in avidin, an egg protein also responsible for the vitamin H biotinase degradation. The egg formation relies heavily on the hen’s overall physiological condition and is very susceptible to any stressors, particularly nutritional stress. What’s more, ostrich egg quality is also largely influenced by various environmental factors that may act upon the egg composition during the 42-day laying process. Reproduction is one of the main pillars of population growth and reproductive success intrinsically linked to.
4. Incubation and Hatching Process
Roughly 42 days come and go before the eggs are ready to hatch. As parents, the mother and father ostrich have a few responsibilities during incubation. The female will sit first on the eggs, then the male will sit on them at night. At any given time, the male ostrich will sit for an average of one to ten days, the amount of time ranging due to different environmental factors. For successful incubation, the clutch of eggs must remain at a constant temperature between 97.5 °F and 98.6 °F (about 36 – 37 °C) with a humidity percentage of nearly 35%. Because of this, the mother ostrich must sit and turn the eggs to guarantee an even temperature distribution. The nest must be in an area free from direct wind exposure, covered with minimal rain protection, and be in an area where the parents have a clear view of any predators or danger that might be approaching.
The consequences of these instinctive tendencies are dilapidating for the embryo inside the egg. As a result of various abortive incidents, hatching hardly ever transpires at the standard completion of 42 days. On a developmental time scale, the first and last four weeks are usually very fragile and critical stages in which the eggs are most commonly lost. The embryo then passes through the anatomical or formative phase, where fundamental structures are initiated, while the third division comprises the polychotomous zone where the thalamus, eye components, ears, urogenital system, hindbrain, and lastly the remaining tissues develop. Outside influences, such as excessive or insufficient temperature fluctuations, moisture, hygiene, and egg turning proficiency can drastically influence the survival, deformity rates, and productivity of the developing ostrich embryo, reducing up to one-third of the normal fertility rates of approximately 70%. Predatory birds, as well as some reptiles, might take off with ostrich eggs, so many parents will stay in the incubation area and be very aggressive if threats are in the vicinity. Wild ostriches have been observed spying from the treetops while their partner is incubating just to alert them of a nearby predator or other danger.
5. Traditional Uses of Ostrich Eggs
Around the world, ostrich eggs have been treasured by people for thousands of years, resulting in artifacts from Arabia to Egypt, Europe, and Asia. We share this cross-cultural appreciation for ostrich eggs today. In the ancient world, ostrich eggs were crafted for simple uses, such as water vessels or lighting systems, and as objects of art and status. Conversely, modern ostrich farmers see these magnificent eggs as a crucial source of cash flow, selling fertilized eggs, eggshells, and blown eggs in addition to their primary product: ostrich meat and leather goods. Throughout history, ostrich eggshells have been significant in spiritual and religious practices, as well as in rituals and artistic traditions. General symbolism surrounding the egg holds that it represents fertility and the source of all life. The shell of the egg was used to represent wealth as well as to depict societies’ inherent workmanship and artful expression. Ostrich eggs have received a level of appreciation unlike that given to other large eggs produced by endangered birds and other mammals. Through time, the number of ways the eggshells have been used has not changed much, but the multiple uses for ostrich eggshells vary geographically. The material, craftsmanship, degree of intricacy, and individual artistic expression can differentiate them.
6. Modern Applications and Commercial Use
Ostrich Egg Application
The current booming use of ostrich eggs is becoming hugely commercial, with the egg’s market products including gourmet cuisine, artistic decorations, gift items, and many ways in commercial activities. As several factors, due to the organic and gourmet markets in agriculture and foods in Europe and other advanced countries in the world, the commercial utilization of ostrich eggs might play an increasingly important function and have more of a potential market over the world for the coming years. In Africa, the ostrich egg and its decorations have helped support the local people who mainly earn their livelihoods by gathering items from nature.
Commercial Ostrich Farming and Future Prospects The economic and commercial problems surrounding the ostrich industry were discussed during seminars held in various locations. As the commercial waterfowl industry has been developed for many years, the commercial ostrich industry in the world over the past several years has also started to develop and prosper in a significant way. This is believed to be a good sign for the future development of the commercial ostrich industry and reveals that there is no need to consider the reduction of ostrich farms in the future as long as all the farms follow the rules of production, farming, marketing, and trade. Ostrich farmers do not just farm, sell, slaughter, and trade ostrich meat or derived commercial products; many farms supplement their incomes with a diverse range of activities, both on and off the farm. The kinds of ostrich-based diversifications that a farm can undertake often depend on the property’s individual characteristics, its current place in the tourist competition matrix, and the resources, both natural and man-made, that are available to it. Offering agri-tourism on ostrich farms is also becoming more fashionable, as many people would like to know more about the largest birds in the world and even like to buy the ostrich eggs or decorations.
Modern Applications During the past thousands of years, ostrich eggs have been used in religious practices, especially as donations to gods in the religious activities of the world, and this activity still occurs today. The adults visit to pray for the health and wealth of their children and their family by making donations of red-colored, hard-boiled ostrich eggs. Everyone in the world can take part in a lottery, the lucky winner of which will divide up all of the ostrich eggs as his or her prize. The commercial and economic use of ostrich eggs was born at that time, and some farmers started to make ostrich eggs to order for gifts to be sold in their shops. So the ostrich egg has had a new and increasing use again in the commercial field. Many tourists who travel in South Africa bring ostrich eggs back to their home country or some of them to their friends and relatives as souvenirs. Some people buy eggshell cups so they can play a game using two of the cups to help people relax in social company.
7. Ostrich Egg Art and Crafts
People enjoy ostrich egg art; however, impractical such pieces may seem. The eggs of these birds are recognized worldwide thanks to being some of the largest laid by an animal in existence today, not to mention their slightly off-centered ovals with a bone-like texture. Yet, the eggs do not consist only of a thick exoshell and a yellow inner. Their incredibly beautiful exteriors, along with their durability, make them a popular canvas for artists who paint, carve, or inlay these eggs – often creating pieces that glisten like marble. A few artists’ works will be featured, even those who create from the depths of fantasy, to those who channel culture and history.
Ostrich eggs have been used for centuries in parts of Africa and Asia. Craftsmen paint, carve, or inlay these eggs to produce elegant décor. Some eggs are decorated as table centerpieces featuring stars, constellations, forest lights, or other magical elements. Ostrich egg sales are not only important for promoting the burgeoning ostrich farming industry but also for providing a much-needed income stream to the communities. There are still craftsmen making unique, expertly handcrafted items using specially selected ostrich eggs. Because of the eggs’ durability and elegant beauty, they are perfect for timeless heirlooms and gifts. However, no two eggs are exactly the same, and each egg possesses its own unique luster and frosted appearance. Artists don’t have it easy, though. They face problems with demand, quality control, tradition, precision, and even acquiring blanks.
8. Symbolism and Cultural Significance of Ostrich Eggs
Ostrich eggs have played an important role in many societies as symbols of life, rebirth, and fertility. Very few objects exist that have a richer tapestry of meaning than an ostrich egg. The eggs of ostriches are created to ensure the highest degree of ostrich survival. The qualities of fertility and protection are very strong. The eggs are big enough to last longer without being rotten, and at the same time easily portable. All of these characteristics and the cost and effort of the female ostrich in laying the eggs offer the hatched eggs benefits to the group. This quality brings with it conscious and willingly valued esteem. The eggs were also used in initiating and marking off a new phase in life, such as rites of initiation, birth, death, chieftain investing, and kings’ inauguration. We find ostrich egg celebrations on mantelpieces.
The symbolism of ostrich eggs has always had a place in human society, as evidenced by this impressive track record. As it happens with many symbols in our world, the ostrich egg also becomes a repository for everything enjoyable and beneficial, an object to bestow felicity and religious reverence, respectable and revered, guarding against all evil, and fitting to present as gifts from which some benefits are to be derived, or be as a token of goodwill, a measure, a store of value, an investment, thereby being a means of shallow savings. They assume the role of the currency of old; objects to be bartered in gaining food, shelter, long life, or acquiring children. Contemporary interpretations of ostrich imagery and egg use concentrate more on their educational and conservation value. Environmental values and cultural values, further subdivided into meaning, institutions, knowledge, identity, and social relations, are interconnected. But for the people behind the new culture of conservation, there are dangers in the globalization of conservation that relies on universal indicating symbols that must also be interpreted in a specific manner.
9. Conservation Efforts for Ostrich Populations
One species of ostrich is listed as vulnerable because it has suffered a rapid population decrease due to illegal hunting. This status of conservation listed three species as endangered and one was data deficient. The main threats to ostrich status are very similar to those listed above and include habitat loss and habitat degradation, particularly in the Sahel, which has been badly overgrazed by cattle and is part of the Sahara-Sahel desert. Of these, the most important implications for conservation are the unknown long-term impact of the consumption of eggs, uncertainty over the sustainability of the bushmeat trade in eastern and southern Africa, and the reconstruction of the Cape population in particular.
In Zimbabwe and South Africa, the international marketing of the regal ostrich has led to the development of successful conservation models based on the minds of the local people. There are only a few places in East Africa where the birds are protected in national parks. Education should go in two directions: the public in general and decision-makers. The best way to combine ostrich farming and conservation is for the conservationists and the farmers to work closely together and to realize that both costs and benefits are not always financial. Any action aimed at saving naturally occurring ostriches could be enhanced by the inclusion of sanctuary demand. International agreements and legislation help to maintain long-term ostrich habitats. A monitoring and research program would be of great help in any conservation and management of the ostrich populations in order for the authorities to know in time whether the birds are still coping with the changes or are in need of intervention.
10. Comparative Studies with Other Avian Eggs
Ostrich eggs have been the subject of many studies since ancient times, but have received relatively scant comparative studies with other avian eggs. Ostrich eggs are large and have an anomalous structure, a very strong shell, and unusual mineralization. The protein composition is also unusual: thin albumen, but no chalazae, and variations during early embryonic development. Yolk composition is also unusual, having small yolk spheres and only 31% lipid in the yolk. Interestingly, the eggs of the moa, which belonged to another family within the Palaeognathae clade, are also large, thin, and have no chalaza. These moas represent the closest relatives of the ostrich and elucidate the fascinating evolutionary properties of the ancestral egg of the Palaeognathae clade. The research carried out on ostrich eggs so far has defined much of the information that we know about avian eggs in general. The egg of the ostrich is a completely unique product of natural selection within the bird. The ancestor of the ostrich was one of a small group of flightless birds that colonized the planet and were the largest creatures on Earth. They filled the niche of modern ungulates, and their eggs were the size of an average ostrich egg. As all the giant moas are now extinct, the evolution of such large eggs is of primary interest. In this review, we discuss the fascinating differences and similarities of the ostrich egg in light of their comparative relevance to the revelation that the closest relatives of the ostrich are the extinct New Zealand moa, which have similarly anomalously big eggs.
11. Nutritional Value and Culinary Uses of Ostrich Eggs
The largest bird egg in the world also boasts the most nutritional value, especially compared to chicken eggs. The average ostrich egg weighs around 1.5 kilograms, the rough equivalent of twenty-four chicken eggs. Of the egg’s total weight, the yolk makes up 55.8 percent, making for about 73 milliliters of pure, unadulterated yellow. Ostrich eggs contain 2070 kilojoules of energy, 42.7g of protein, 178mg of calcium, and 4.5mg of iron, alongside vitamins such as thiamin, riboflavin, ascorbic acid, and pantothenic acid.
Given its nutritional content and larger size, the ostrich egg, which has a mild flavor, is a fitting ingredient for many dishes. Unique ostrich egg recipes hail from all around the world, including Italy, where hard-boiled renditions are considered a delicacy and served with antipasti, soup, or the occasional salad. Meanwhile, a popular festival in Pretoria, South Africa, sells an ostrich scrambled egg accommodation option alongside fruit and muesli, bacon and eggs, and a pocket of a loaf of bread. With a high yolk content and deep golden hue, prepared ostrich eggs are so rich in flavor that chefs at select restaurants have added an element of luxury to the dish to meet the premium reputation of an egg that costs a bit more. One restaurant, for example, sells half a loaded ostrich egg with the option to bowl it further by adding either a red wine reduction, cheese sauce, sautéed garlic and sherry cremini mushrooms, or prosciutto and asparagus. Because of its large size, this half egg may then be baked, chilled, cut, and sliced, also providing ample material for a casserole or egg bowl.
12. Ostrich Eggshell as a Material in Various Industries
Artists and craftspeople have long appreciated the beauty and strength of the ostrich eggshell. Due to its soft and porous nature, it can easily be carved, etched, or bejeweled. It has been highly prized in Africa for many years, where it has been used to create beadwork, jewelry, and stunning decorative elements. In the West, it has been utilized for centuries to create intricate jewelry designs. The thick, durable nature of the eggshell means it can be used not only in jewelry but in fine art—sculptors have been known to carve into the very egg itself to create stunningly original, lustrous art. Turning eggshells into art is not the only construction industry to embrace the ostrich egg’s potential. A strong contender for sustainable design products, it can be combined with earth or concrete and milled to create all sorts of industrial tiles, bricks, and dyed panels. Using eggshell material has the advantages of reducing costs and minimizing carbon emissions and environmental pollution caused by the excessive disposal of waste eggshells. Something has been developed to generate electricity from the pressure applied to crushed ostrich eggshells. Made in a series of ultrathin layers, the material is highly flexible, bending and twisting when compressed, while generating electricity as it does so. The purpose of this interaction is to inspire and encourage young people to learn from the mistakes of others. Using meaningful messages embedded in ostrich eggshells talks with the young audience and encourages them to discover the material potential of eggshells. With the help of visualization, the alternative uses of eggshells are vividly displayed, and the safety of eggshell waste is expressed in an appealing and vivid way. There is growing interest in the focus on the environment, reflected in the increasing number of people interested in stories about natural and eco-friendly products. Ostrich eggs are part of the overall global trend favoring ostrich products as it continues to grow. The worldwide interest in technology through online stores and social networks is growing, with an emphasis on many ostrich products, such as ostrich eggshell jewelry and curios, being natural and eco-friendly. The ostrich eggshell has already been worked and polished by natural power and hand and showcases many unique artistic designs. The most common method of processing ostrich eggshells in the jewelry industry is by manual carving and polishing. This task is an essential skill for many jewelry designers to create compelling designs in their jewelry and improve the value of their creative artwork. The ostrich egg is considered one of the most prominent objects by many people since it is unique and represents unique design.
13. Medical and Therapeutic Applications of Ostrich Egg Components
In most cases, ostrich eggs are used for consumption; however, more and more often, people are seeking substances such as egg white, yolk, oil, and shells for various medical and therapeutic applications. The substances contained in them, whether raw or in a purified form, are responsible for the construction of tissues. They are rich in protein and omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, which bring many health benefits. Many studies confirm the strength of the ingredients found in ostrich eggs and their suitability as agents in many chronic and non-chronic diseases. Ostrich egg yolk, on the other hand, may one day be an effective remedy, provided that enough research is conducted to ultimately confirm its efficacy.
Considering the composition of ostrich eggs, it is possible that their components will play a supporting role because their solid content consists of proteins, lipids, sugars, vitamins, and minerals. Ostrich eggshells have a chemical composition from which calcium carbonate or hydroxyapatite can be obtained. These extracts, with various metals, are intended for regenerative medicine because their chemical composition does not induce an immunogenic response in the host’s tissues. They also have unique properties with their binding ability, with increasing attention to collagen in medicine, which works in a similar way. Today, promising research is also being conducted in the field of wound treatment. For example, findings show the induction of renewed regeneration of blood vessels without scars, while also supporting the growth of beneficial bacteria in chronic wounds. Ostrich egg white also has wonderful properties, where its microbiological purity superiority over hen’s egg white is related to the lack of vitamin A. It has already found application as a band-aid for burned individuals.
14. Ostrich Eggshell Microstructure and Properties
Ostriches lay the largest bird egg, which represents the largest single nucleated cell known. Analogous to avian eggs, the ostrich egg consists of an egg yolk in a liquid egg white surrounded by a tough eggshell with an irregular microstructure and a relatively low fracture toughness. The eggshell consists of a double-layered shell, which is again subdivided into two sections and characterized by vascular canals. The main difference lies in the composition. Generally, the avian eggshell consists mainly of CaCO3, characterized by a 2D sheet-like microstructure consisting of calcites. Within these calcite tablets, however, organic matrix and other minerals might occur and alter the mechanical properties of the eggshell.
An egg comprises several layers with different properties, yet they all are adapted to biological and mechanical functions. Modern imaging and analysis tools reveal the microstructure of ostrich eggshells. The following parts belong to the eggshell at the end of an ostrich egg: the outer shell membrane, the hard and brittle external layer with eroded dents, called conchostracum, the mammillary layer, and the internal layer with narrow vascular canals, the prism layer. Within these regularly packed porous prisms, laths with permeable channels are similar to avian eggshells. The bio-composite CaCO3-ennatured collagen, with inner circular lamellae, shows significant modifications, increased biological life-history theory, and emphasizes the importance of biology and evolutionary studies of biological materials.
Finally, in terms of materials science, biological materials are regarded as model objects, and their morphology ideals are transferred into biomimetic and engineering fields. The biological eggshell morphology and its microstructural attributes are well studied in the response to external stimuli. The spectra revealed an exceptionally high organic amount within the vascular canals, compared to the inorganic amount; additional magnesium content and disordered backbone groups. The vascular canal system channels the barrier ratio from the femoral porous bone to the internal area and the egg yolk by fluid transport. The influence in eggshell thickening is still under discussion.
15. Ostrich Eggshell Pigments and Coloration
One of the most striking features of the ostrich eggshell is a rich layer of color that can range from stark white to vibrant blue. The color seen in the eggshell is the result of pigments deposited within the shell as the egg is being formed, primarily by the oviduct. The pigments responsible for the vibrant colors seen in the shell are biliverdin and protoporphyrin. These are not unique to the production of eggshells but are important within the body for a variety of functions. Their contribution to the coloration of eggshells is an interesting parallel on a much grander scale. Large metalloporphyrins that have been conjugated with amines, geranylate, and other compounds are responsible for the variation in color seen in eggshells. Previous research has suggested that these pigments can be introduced into the eggshell during the initial stages of shell deposition and are deposited more thickly in areas of the shell that harden later than in the rest of the evenly thick shell.
It is not fully understood what influences the color of the eggshells. There is some evidence that it is partially influenced by diet. How an individual’s genetics may play into the equation of eggshell color can vary from species to species. There have been few studies on this matter in birds, but the subjects that have been studied display the same extremes of results as seen with human eye color: dominant and recessive traits with a host of variables further influenced by this basic two-gene count. Although little research has been done to determine the purpose of coloring eggshells, one hypothesis is that it could be a form of camouflage for the growing embryo. This also happens to be an intriguing function of biliverdin, in that it can act as a heme-oxygenase. If potential predators in the wild use visual findings such as specific colors to indicate superior food sources or to assist in physical survival or reproduction, creating a specific colored egg could enhance its chances of producing offspring with an advantage over others by signaling superior cellular health during the egg’s gestation period. Because of the often striking and beautiful colors seen in eggshells and the potential for practical dyes for art and clothing generated by them, they have been highly prized in many cultures throughout history.
16. Ostrich Eggshell Archaeological Discoveries
The participation of ostrich eggshells in ancient sites provides valuable archaeological records from the past. Some of these ostrich egg archaeological discoveries reveal different aspects of human habitation, contexts, behaviors, and socioeconomic strategies in a given place and time. They are sometimes linked to subsistence survival strategies for food gathering or trade. In some cases, broken pieces bear evidence of use or intricate engravings. The production of beads and other artifacts indicates social or religious status as well as decoration and other symbolic activities. Stone and bone tools for cracking or burning the inside of the eggshells are also discovered. Shells are tools marking the daily acts of individuals, depicting the knowledge and ideas of a particular generation in a society. The patterns of the use and production of so-called ostrich shell artifacts vary among different groups or site time periods. This can shed light on issues such as the social networks connecting various communities, tools, trade in raw materials or finished artifacts, or destruction of a trade emporium or spot of social interaction, as well as understanding human behavior linked to animal behavior and local and regional flora biodiversity. These materials allow an interdisciplinary view of ecology, anthropology, and archaeology. Interdisciplinary attempts to reconstruct ancient climates from archaeological ostrich eggshells also offer rich results. Recently, the study of eggshell-bearing strata was discovered, which bears clear evidence of heat treatment and a high density of OES and incomplete or whole ostrich eggs; a clear palimpsest of human interactions with eggs, eggshells, and ostrich remnants was found in nearly every excavation unit. Diachronic studies of eggshell production and exploitation have the potential to inform whether human-ostrich interactions varied or intensified over time. Moreover, disentangling the sequence of production from use will reveal distinctive local or cultural OES-processing ‘signatures’ to assess whether diachronic production synergies or divergences emerged at Klasies River over time.
17. Ostrich Eggshell in Paleontology and Evolutionary Studies
Ostrich eggshell material is found and analyzed in paleontological research to understand the evolution of birds from theropod dinosaurs and a deeply rooted division among extant birds. Fossilized ostrich eggs are important for evolutionary studies, touching on ecological adaptation, especially in the case of the little likely theropod egg of the Maastrichtian Protoceratopsid. Among the plethora of fossilized eggs with a strong resemblance to modern ostrich eggs, those of the ornithomimosaurs likely belong to Oviraptorosauria. In a broader perspective, ancient ostrich eggshells grow in importance when viewed not only in terms of reproductive strategy but in ecological context with modern avian relatives that may offer clues to eggshell structure that is masked by variation across major dinosaurian groups that may evolve non-avian eggshells such as those found in enantiornithine birds.
Only recently, with the introduction of some rather novel techniques such as microstructural Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy or scanning electron microscopy Fourier-Transform infrared, where eggshell cuticle ultrastructure is looked at after gradual breaking down to the surface, paleontologists are finding some of these answers in fossil shells as well. Evidently, the beginning age of the Palaeognathae harks back to long before dinosaurs’ extinction, providing the backbone to the plethora of evolutionary convergence and divergence leading to the current dazzling and diverse array of biodiversity across the globe.
18. Ostrich Eggshell in Forensic Science
Eggshell is significant physical and chemical evidence to identify and carry out deep investigations in criminal cases. With many distinguishing characteristics and wide application in forensic science, ostrich eggshells have received much attention in this field. Eggshell, with a multilayered structure and a thickness of up to 2 mm in wild ostriches, has pm to mm frame porosity and vessels within the structure. Minerals of the ostrich eggshell protective layer comprise predominantly calcium carbonate and other minor elements reduced to approximately 3% in weight. Secretions from the female ostrich are incorporated in the organic matrix, e.g., uric acid, to a weight ratio of less than 3%. The polymorphism, multistage, and multizone characteristics of the ostrich eggshells can provide a lot of eligible evidence for forensic evaluation to link suspects and crime scenes. Ostrich eggshell fragments have been found in many scenes and can establish a link between a crime scene and a suspect or between different crime scenes. The development of a method that can eliminate the interference of other background eggshells can help to reduce the rate of false positives and false negatives and improve the utilization of ostrich eggshells for forensic purposes. A hyphenated technique of the Pirenne-Zng method and diffuse reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy can be an effective way to detect and identify dispersed ostrich eggshells on cotton and presents great potential for further development to be an applicable technique for forensic examination. Although the ostrich has verified meat in South China, do they or the other Asian ostrich populations change their eggshells in the same way as the African wild ostrich? If so, to what extent would the CC ratio change? To resolve this issue, which could be valuable for forensic researchers, analyzing eggshells of other ostrich subspecies using various non-destructive analytical approaches is a potential project for forensic researchers. It would be helpful to refine protocols in ostrich eggshell analysis and incorporate it as evidence in the criminal justice system.
19. Future Research Directions and Innovations in Ostrich Egg Studies
Future Research Directions and Innovations Possibilities for future research directions regarding ostrich eggs are numerous, and as discussed in the preceding sections, have the potential to be interdisciplinary. This paper raises the question: In what other ways have ostrich and/or their eggs become involved in developments in the sciences, culture, or industry or had their roles evolved during the last 10–15 years but remain un- or understudied up to now? I express my hope that my paper will resonate not least among that small number of individuals who might chance to be today involved in recent developments, especially when emerging obviousnesses from the trajectories of innovation between about 1995 and 2020 suggest new possibilities for interrogating “the improbable.” Irrespectively of cuts of command who care to support futures past overrunning international criminal law into human existence at its level, the requirements would suggest a future agenda of truly interdisciplinary work, requiring collaborations between historians, anthropologists, archæozoologists, zooarchæologists, geneticists, reproductive and developmental biologists, food scientists, and possibly also radiologists, micro-positioning physicists, and CT-scanners to develop new and less or non-invasive technologies of analysis.
A fundamental unknown asterisk phrasing any future study of large, chondrichthian calcareous eggs requires willingness to naively and seriously ask not only “what if I became scientific on this question?” but paradoxically to also implicitly inquire “What if we recognised the scientific parameters of this question anew here, as different from those that were formed through the professional science of a colonial world?” and “What if we properly recognised the respective, but interacting and historically pragmatic uncertainty peculiar to making up for a loss in the continuity of generations – what if alongside the common statement that indeterminacy can be both blessedly human or obtusely animal, it is also and by the same token often improved or degraded as science. In “bearing on a logic of the coloniser and colonised alike, as what Rob Nixon terms ‘slow violence’”. A “Cultural Ostrich sess” might therefore provide coordinates for this complex and uncertain future-of-ovum question. At this opponent vantage – the opposite of bareness – power inheres in acts of informing those who pass through the future whether they fruit or multiply. Cultural attempts to see beyond or without the constraints of the curve of the future must therefore always guide a look prayerlike into the past.
